Deliberative Democracy
Alex Walker answers some frequently asked questions.
1. What is deliberative democracy?
Deliberative democracy is a form of democratic decision-making where citizens engage in a process of learning, reflection and reasoned discussion before forming a collective judgement. Deliberative democracy claims that when the citizens affected by an issue come together to share their perspective and listen to others it leads to credible and legitimate decisions.
2. What is a citizens’ assembly?
A citizens’ assembly is a particular, practical model for doing deliberative democracy. Other approaches, such as citizens’ juries and deliberative polls, differ in their size and how they arrive at decisions. Citizens’ assemblies are currently the most commonly used method.
The key feature of these deliberative democratic processes is that they involve participants who are randomly selected to be representative of the population as a whole. Scientific polling methods are used so that members form a ‘mini-public’, with gender, age, ethnicity, and social class all proportionally represented. For citizens’ assemblies, the ‘mini-public’ is made up of between 50 and 250 individuals.
3. How do citizens’ assemblies work?
Citizens’ assemblies follow a three-phase process of learning, deliberation, and decision-making. In the first stage, assembly members learn about the issue at hand from experts with a range of different views, who they are given the opportunity to question. In the second stage, participants consider the evidence they have heard in small groups which are moderated by professional, neutral facilitators. At this point, they deliberate on the different options, sharing their own opinions and hearing those of other members. In the third stage, participants decide on proposals based on what they have learnt and discussed.
4. Who runs citizens’ assemblies?
Citizens’ assemblies, and other deliberative initiatives, are usually commissioned by institutions grappling with an issue. These have included local authorities, parliamentary select committees and national governments. However, for the sake of an impartial process, assemblies are typically run at arms-length from the commissioning body. There are several charitable organisations that specialise in the design and delivery of these kind of processes.
5. How much do they cost?
Climate Assembly UK, a national initiative with 110 members, had a budget of £520,000; whereas, a smaller, local citizens’ assembly that took place in Cambridge last year cost £129,500. To make assemblies accessible and encourage participation, this figure usually includes a small sum gifted to each participant as an acknowledgement of their time and effort (e.g. £150 each weekend). All travel, accommodation and daily expenditure are also covered, along with the cost of any caring responsibilities. Although deliberative processes come with a cost, these figures are relatively low in relation to what might be spent overall on the policy in question.
6. Are citizens capable of considering complex policy issues?
Citizens aren’t expected to possess pre-existing policy expertise; what sets citizens’ assemblies apart from other democratic mechanisms, such as referendums, is that they involve a process of learning and dialogue before coming to an informed judgement.
It might be assumed that citizens without any prior knowledge would be unable to get to grips with complex issues, but previous deliberative exercises have shown the public able to quickly comprehend and reflect on complicated subjects. These have included different funding models for social care, climate science and, in other countries such as Canada and Ireland, constitutional reform.
The rationale for citizens’ assemblies, and other deliberative exercises, is that citizens possess particular perspectives and knowledge that politicians and officials often lack. They demonstrate what ordinary individuals want and are willing to accept when it comes to a particular issue. In instances where there are particular costs to be borne by the public, or fundamental changes to the nature of democracy under consideration, it can be vital to have direct citizen-input which can provide a specific mandate for change.
7. Isn’t deliberation and decision-making the role of MPs and government?
Citizens’ assemblies are intended to complement and enhance representative democracy not
undermine it. Deliberative processes are advisory – they do not take any decision-making power out of the hands of ministers and MPs. Any recommendations put forward by a citizens’ assembly, or any other deliberative mechanism, would still have to be put before Parliament by government and the ability of MPs to debate and scrutinise legislation would in no way be compromised. Incorporating more deliberative processes into the UK political system would not serve to undermine Parliament’s sovereignty. The aim is for more deliberative citizen-engagement, but this does not equate to the politics of direct or popular democracy.
8. How can deliberative democracy assist MPs and ministers?
Deliberative democracy can help politicians do their jobs and strengthen their relationship with the public. Citizens’ assemblies can provide politicians with a specific, detailed account of what the public recommend. This information can help them more accurately represent the interests and concerns of citizens. This does not mean that they are beholden to the proposals of a citizens’ assembly, politicians would continue to exercise their own judgement. Even if ministers do not, in the end, choose to implement the recommendations it still demonstrates their willingness to engage directly with the public on an issue – helping to bridge the perceived gap between representatives and citizens.
Representatives often find themselves held back from progressing an issue as they might like by the constraints of the whips, the prospect of the next election, lobbying groups and party divisions. A citizens’ assembly can consider an issue without these pressures, and provide a powerful argument and mandate for politicians wanting to move a complex problem forward.
Whilst citizens’ assemblies are not intended to usurp the role of MPs or government, it is important that they are seen to have impact. An assembly without any connection to the political process might make for interesting reading, but would lack proper influence and may serve to heighten public disillusionment with politics. Ideally, the relevant minister would agree prior to a citizens’ assembly that the recommendations would be properly considered, and a full government response published.
9. What’s to stop those with vested interests and the loudest voices from dominating the process?
The process of random selection overcomes the issue of only the most active and engaged citizens putting themselves forward. Expert facilitators use a number of techniques to ensure that particular participants don’t come to overly dominate the process, and that everyone feels included and comfortable enough to contribute. Participants are often also selected to reflect different political attitudes, such as whether they favour a small or large state. These provisions help ensure that the assembly doesn’t unfairly favour either the left or the right and instead mirrors the political differences of the wider public.
Citizens’ assemblies are normally overseen by an independent, impartial advisory panel, who contribute to the planning of the assembly and ensure that the information that comes before participants is balanced and accurate. Feedback from assembly members shows that the overwhelming majority agree that they heard from a diverse range of viewpoints.
10. Don’t citizens’ assemblies lead to radical and unfeasible proposals?
Although citizens’ assemblies are usually run at arms-length from the commissioning body, the initiating institution usually determines the question under consideration and the remit of the assembly. To be effective a citizens’ assembly needs parameters and focus. They are constrained to an extent by the question and the range of workable alternatives. This is by no means the same as the outcome being predetermined. Nevertheless, it does provide assurance that the suggestions will not be beyond realms of what is plausible.
As we have seen, the ‘mini-public’ of the assembly should be no more radical than the British public more generally. Climate Assembly UK, for example, considered how to achieve the Government’s own target, set out in legislation, of net zero emissions by 2050. It included 16 members who were “not very concerned” about climate change, and 3 who were “not at all concerned”, which reflects the levels of concern amongst the British public in general.
11. Electoral turnout and political engagement are low, would citizens actually be interested in participating?
Turnout at elections remains relatively low and the Hansard Society’s most recent ‘Audit of Political Engagement’ found that 32% of people didn’t want to be involved at all in local decision-making. However, it also reported that 47% feel they have no influence at all over national decision-making and 50% agree that the main parties don’t care about people like them. This perceived powerlessness, and the political apathy it can generate, are a good reason for more citizen-engagement through initiatives like citizens’ assemblies. They can help demonstrate that politicians care and individuals have influence.
12. What do people who have participated in citizens’ assemblies think?
Anonymous feedback from participants in citizens’ assemblies is overwhelming positive about both the experience and the process, suggesting that public enthusiasm for participation would grow if they became more widespread. Members of the Citizens’ Assembly on Social Care unanimously agreed with the statement “Assemblies like this should be used more often to inform government and parliament decision-making.” Participants often refer to a sense of pride at having been asked to help make important decisions and in what they managed to achieve as a group. One individual, speaking about their experience of the Irish Citizens’ Assembly, said “we were proud to have been given an important task… I felt empowered and informed.”
13. What sort of topics have deliberative processes been used for?
Deliberative processes are not the answer to every question and it should be carefully considered whether they are the right approach. There is some agreement that they are especially appropriate for difficult, controversial issues where the public have a particular stake, and any change might prove politically challenging for decision-makers. The Citizens’ Assembly on Social Care and the Climate Assembly UK have already been mentioned – two subjects that have proved challenging to address, in part because they involve costs and behavioural changes on the part of citizens.
14. Where else have they worked well?
Citizens’ assemblies have also proved successful at a local level. Last year saw DCMS and MHCLG jointly commission the Innovation in Democracy Programme (IiDP), which supported three local authorities in running deliberative exercises on an issue of their choosing. An independent evaluation of the programme found that the experience of participation was positive for the majority of participants, specifically in helping to develop new skills and knowledge, imparting a sense of personal efficacy and raising awareness of the work of the local authority. In the last 12 months, several councils have also held their own citizens’ assemblies on addressing climate change.
Looking further afield, several countries have successfully used deliberative processes to address constitutional questions. Ireland, Iceland and Canada have all reasoned that it is essential to have citizen-input when fundamental changes to the system are being considered, to ensure that these reforms have long-lasting democratic legitimacy. These questions are complicated and contested, requiring careful consideration, which makes them well-suited to deliberation.
The Citizens’ Assembly of Ireland, the most prominent recent example, is most well-known for recommending the legalisation of abortion. The Assembly helped to overcome polarisation and foster mutual understanding on abortion in Ireland – setting the stage for a public poll that was previously politically unthinkable. It also considered a range of other issues including fixed-term parliaments and the use of referendums.
Deliberative democracy has also been taking place in the Netherlands, the US, Australia, South Korea, Poland, and France, among others.